Anti Discriminatory Practice: Gender and sexism

Anti discriminatory practice is about taking positive action to counter discrimination. It is about being pro active and presenting positive images of the diversity of people that make up our society and also challenging any discriminatory or oppressive language and behaviour. There are several kinds of discrimination, such as more commonly known, racism, disablism and ageism. One of the things we do when meeting people is to make assumptions about them. This is partly based on how we see ourselves as similar or different to other people. We may respond to these similarities and differences positively or negatively. This booklet will be looking at gender inequality and how we can perhaps overcome and diverse the discrimination in sexism. SEXISM. The Sex Discrimination Act (SDA) is written in terms of discrimination against women but it applies equally to discrimination against men. These guidelines are written as if the discrimination applies to a woman but they should be read as also applying to a man. There are three types of discrimination which can apply to services. (Source from www. equalopportunitiescommission. o. uk). Direct sex discrimination Where a woman is treated less favourably than a man in similar circumstances because of her sex (s. 1 (1) (a) SDA). It is direct sex discrimination if: * financial institutions insist that a married woman who wants a loan must apply jointly with her husband (unless all married applicants are always required to apply jointly with their partners) Indirect sex discrimination Where a condition or requirement is applied equally to both women and men but, in fact, it adversely affects more women than men and is not genuinely necessary (s. 1 (1)(b) SDA). For example, it may be indirect sex discrimination if: * A mortgage provider only gives mortgages to people who work full-time. Although this condition would apply to both sexes it is likely to adversely affect more women than men since more women work part-time. Many part-time workers are in permanent, secure, well-paid jobs and some can earn more than full-timers, so a refusal to give mortgages or loans solely because the applicant works part-time is unreasonable. Victimisation Where a person has been treated less favourably compared to others because he/she made a complaint of sex discrimination. It also applies to those who assist the person. For example: A woman who took a sex discrimination claim under the employment provisions of the SDA against an amusement arcade was banned from using the facilities of the arcade. Witnesses who appeared for her at the employment tribunal were also banned. The woman and the witnesses would have a claim of victimisation against the owners of the arcade. (www. equalopportunitiescommission. co. uk) GENDER INEQUALITY. Sexism is a set of beliefs, practices and institutional structures which reinforces and is reinforced by patriarchy. A longstanding definition of sexism is: a deep rooted, often unconscious system of beliefs, attitudes and institutions in which distinctions between peoples intrinsic worth are made on the grounds of their sex and sexual roles (in Bullock and Stallybrass, 1977, p. 571). *†The achievement of equality between men and women is a matter of human rights and a condition of social justice†. Fourth UN World Conference on Women, Beijing, September 1995 (Department of Education and Employment, 1995). Sexism operates within a system of patriarchy. Patriarchy is one of the structural dimensions of society which is strongly associated with the sexist culture. This demeans and disempowers women and sows the seeds for the prejudice of women in terms of both attitudes and behaviour. Weber (1947) had used this concept to describe sexism. He used the term â€Å"the law of the father† to refer to the dominance of men within the family. The use of this term however, has been extended to describe the dominance of the males within the employment area and its reflection in the distribution of power. For example in the military forces, technology, universities, science, political and even religious sectors. (Such as the pope is and has always been male). So therefore, this suggests male dominance in most areas. Richard Webb and David Tossell (1999) report the following statements; *Women are an oppressed majority. *They represent up to 51% of the UK population, yet they do not have the same rights as men nor do they have the same access to resources as men do. * Women are less likely to obtain the same sort of jobs as men or positions of power. They earn less then men and are a lot more vulnerable to employment. They tend to be in less prestigious jobs and less secure forms of employment. This is mainly due to the discrimination that women are seen as the main â€Å"carer† role of the genders, being seen as the mother and the role to be the homemaker rather than the breadwinner, which is stereotypically seen as the male role. However, the biological differences within the roles are as such, that men are not able to conceive or give birth to children. Women, however do have that capability in being able to give birth and breast feed children. Barrett and McIntosh have argued that the family is oppressive to women and that it is an anti social institution. (Barrett and McIntosh 1982). They argue that the nuclear family promotes individualistic rather than social or collective values, and its privatised nature excludes those outside of it. *Women do more housework than men. The discriminatory process is known as structural sexism. This begins at birth and is maintained through childhood. Stereotypical roles are played within the family. While society is constantly changing and the attitudes towards equality are constantly being changed the ground in attitudes and beliefs are so firmly rooted the change is only very gradual. The gender role stereotyping in families are still abundant. For example, the mother stays at home to nurture the children whilst the father is out at work providing for the family. The girls tend to follow the role of the mother helping in household chores, such as cleaning and cooking, whilst the boys tend to follow the fathers role in helping fix the car or watching football! These social roles are defined within society, but because of the nature/nurture debate, they do appear to be biological differences and are therefore accepted and appreciated more easily. It is not just a matter of differences within the sexes. Abercrombie et al. 2000) argues that issues of gender (and gender inequality) now occupy a central place in sociological discussion. He quotes: â€Å"Gender is the social aspect of the differentiation of the sexes. Sociological discussion in this area recognises that social rather than biological processes are the key to understanding the position of women (and men) in society. Notions that a woman's biology, such as her capacity to bear children, determined the shape of her life have been replaced by complex debates as to how different social processes interact to produce a great variety of patterns of gender relations. Emphasis shifted towards understanding the diversity of the social practices which constitute gender in different nations, classes and generations. (p. 193). This statement clarifies that there are inevitable differences between the sexes. The roles that societies define are not going to change dramatically because of this huge, yet inconceivably big difference of males and females. Although the roles of women in society are changing in the aspects of work and relationships, the biological aspects of women are always going to remain the same. GENDER STEREOTYPING IN YOUTH GROUPS. The Brownie and Girl Guide Movement was set up as a youth group for girls. Originally, they were named the Rosebuds. The idea behind it was that the girls were fed up that the boys were allowed to have their own group, (the Boy Scouts) and the girls were left out of all the fun. The Rosebuds originally had to do menial feminine tasks, such as cooking, cleaning and sewing for the Scouts. Eventually the girls were not happy with the name Rosebuds and had the name changed to the Girl Guide Movement. The name Rosebuds in itself suggests the sexist views of women and girls, as the name is very feminine. The original tasks the girls had to do were based around helping the Boy Scouts, which also suggests the sexist way in which society viewed girls and women. The ideas and values which were instilled into the girls was that they were the homemakers. The Girl Guides had to make sure they always had their uniform clean and always came â€Å"prepared†. This still is a big motto within the movement. Years ago â€Å"being prepared† meant having certain items in your purse which included a safety pin and small sewing kit. This was not something the Boy Scouts had to do. The earning of badges is encouraged in the Movement as a way of setting up your independence for the future. However, the contrast in the types of tasks involved in the badges between the males and females are still quite divided. There are more homemaking badges within the girl guides, such as textiles, homemaking, which is the cleaning and organising of your home/bedroom for some weeks, childcare badge, tea badge, which involves the preparing of cakes, biscuits and tea for a fundraising event. These are still the most popular badges which are given out to the girl Guides. This is because the values and ideas within the movement have still not changed a huge deal from being the homemaker as they are females. The Movement now as it stands has changed immensely. The Girl Guide movement now encourages independence and camping as the Boy Scouts have been doing for many years. As a voluntary Youth Group the Girl Guide Movement empowers the girls to lead independent lives, encourages social relationships with both sexes, shows positive regard for each young person and provides opportunity for personal growth. This is quite a contrast from the once quite feminine ideas, role forming and principles which were once held. ANTI DISCRIMINATORY PRACTICE The way in which this is done is through a number of different policies that the youth leaders have all adhered to within the movement. The following are some suggested guidelines that could be given in order for the Youth group to be effectively run in a way that there may be less discrimination in the group. 1. Respecting individuality. 2. Trusting people 3. Encouraging good interpersonal and communication skills 4. Promoting positive social relationships 5. Young girls being involved in decision making 6. Providing a range of group work and social activities, including community involvement and more involvement within the Scouting activities. 7. The use of youth's meetings to enable people to have an opportunity to influence and assist with planning, especially the young females, who have been previously excluded from or uninvolved in other activities. 8. Principles of inclusion independence and enablement are key issues. Alongside these principles, a staff team that is working together, receiving supervision opportunities for learning and development, is required. Also to understand the need to work collaboratively by supporting multi professional and agency working. I feel that these policies are very important in all work. However with the involvement of young girls and women, it is important not to categorise their roles into somewhat of a homemaker role. To allow the girls to develop and flourish their own ideas and principles within the group they are involved and to develop these attitudes within their home environment is a positive way of diversing the discrimination females have within society.

Biodegradation of Hydrocarbons from Crude Oil by Pseudomonas Putida

Biodegradation of Hydrocarbons from Crude Oil by Pseudomonas putida A Project done under the guidance of Dr. K. Bharathi Department of Biotechnology. Submitted to the faculty Of Department of Biotechnology National Institute Of Technology, Warangal (A. P) Submitted By Febin P. Nalpady, Anzal Rahman, Shruti Sharma, Sindhuja Nandiraju, Giraboina Kranthi Kumar NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY WARANGAL (A. P) (DEEMED UNIVERSITY) 2010-2011 DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, WARANGAL (A. P) CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the project entitled â€Å"†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. † carried out by †¦.. , bearing roll no. †¦. ,, final year B. Tech, Biotechnology, during academic year 2010-2011, is a bonafide work submitted to the National Institute of Technology, Warangal in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology. Guide : Dr. K Bharathi Dept. of Biotechnology NIT Warangal ACKNOWLEDGEMENT With great pleasure and deep sense of gratitude, we take this opportunity to express our sense of indebtedness to Dr. K Bharathi, our project guide for accepting us under her good self to carry out this project work, and providing us his invaluable guidance and constant encouragement at each and every step throughout the progress of this project. To be sincere it was an inextinguishable treasure of pleasure for us to work under her excellent guidance. I would also like to thank the faculty of our department,Dr. P Sreenivasa Rao, Mr. Onkara Perumal and Mr. K. Narasimhulu. They were a pillar of strength for us and encouraged us to do our best. Name Roll no Table of Contents 1. Abstract 2. Introduction 2. 1 Bioremediation 2. 2 The conventional techniques of remediation 2. 3 Advantages of Bioremediation 2. 4 Microbes that are useful for bioremediation 3. Review of literature 3. 1 Microbial degradation 3. 2 Biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons 3. 3 Factors affecting Degradation 3. 4 Mechanism of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Degradation 4. Brief outline of the project work 5. Materials and Methods 5. 1 Preparation Of Nutrient Broth 5. 2 Preparation of Nutrient Agar Slants from the Bacterial Strain 5. Preparation of SubCultures of Bacterial Strain 5. 4 Centrifugation of Crude Oil 5. 5 Subculturing Of Petri Plates with oil 5. 6 Biodegradation Studies 5. 7 Gravimetric Analysis 6. Results 6. 1 Growth Analysis of Pseudomonas Putida 6. 2 Gravimetric Analysis 7. Discussion 8. References 1. ABSTRACT Oil spills have become a serious problem with the ever-increasing re source exploitation, transportation, storage, and accidental leakage of oil. Several techniques, including physical, chemical, and biological methods, are used to recover spilled oil from the environment. Bioremediation is a promising option for remediation since it is effective and economic in removing oil with less undue environmental damages. However, it is a relatively slow process and the degree of success depends on a number of factors. These factors include the existence of a microbial population capable of degrading the pollutants, the availability of contaminants to the microbial population and the environment factors are type of soil, temperature, pH, the presence of oxygen and nutrients. This project aims to study the degradation extent of the pseudomonas putida on oil. The microbial strain used is procured from NCL pune. 2. Introduction In quantitative terms, crude oil is one of the most important organic pollutants in marine environment and it has been estimated that worldwide somewhere between 1. 7- 8. 8? 106 tons of petroleum hydrocarbons impact marine waters and estuaries annually. Reports have been appearing since last three decades on the biodegradability of crude oil by bacteria which can use hydrocarbons as source of carbon and energy. A way to mitigate the effects of oil spills is bioremediation. 2. 1 Bioremediation It is a process by which chemical substances are degraded by bacteria and other microorganisms. The use of these microorganisms has been successfully applied for the treatment of waste and wastewater in controlled systems. Several research studies have recently been performed to investigate the use of bioremediation for oil-spill cleanup in seawater, freshwater and terrestrial areas. The technique has been found to have a potential for broad applications in terrestrial and freshwater environments for treating soils and sediments contaminated with oil and other substances, as well as for coastal environments impacted by oil spills. Water is a more sensitive medium than soil and requires different remediation techniques. Spills to surface water are easier to clean up than spills to groundwater, for obvious reasons. It is not only much harder to see the extent of the contamination, but also to remove the source of the contamination as, for example, a leaking underground storage tank. 2. 2. The conventional techniques of remediation . The conventional techniques used for remediation have been to dig up contaminated soil and remove it to a landfill, or to cap and contain the contaminated areas of a site. The methods have some drawbacks. The first method simply moves the contamination elsewhere and may create significant risks in the excavation, handling, and transport of hazardous material. Additionally, it is very difficult and increasingly expensive to find new landfill sites for the final disposal of the material. A better approach than these traditional methods is to completely destroy the pollutants if possible, or at least to transform them to innocuous substances. Some technologies that have been used are high-temperature incineration and various types of chemical decomposition (e. g. , base-catalyzed dechlorination, UV oxidation). They can be very effective at reducing levels of a range of contaminants, but have several drawbacks, principally their technological complexity, the cost for small-scale application, and the lack of public acceptance, especially for incineration that may increase the exposure to contaminants for both the workers at the site and nearby residents. . 3 Advantages of Bioremediation Bioremediation is an option that offers the possibility to destroy or render harmless various contaminants using natural biological activity. As such, it uses relatively low-cost, low-technology techniques and can often be carried out on site. It will not always be suitable, however, as the range of contaminants on which it is effective is limited, the timescales involved are relatively long, and the residual contaminant levels achievable ma y not always be appropriate. Although the methodologies employed are not technically complex, considerable experience and expertise may be required to design and implement a successful bioremediation program, due to the need to thoroughly assess a site for suitability and to optimize conditions to achieve a satisfactory result. Because bioremediation seems to be a good alternative to conventional clean-up technologies research in this field, especially in the United States, rapidly increasing. Bioremediation has been used at a number of sites worldwide, including Europe, with varying degrees of success. Techniques are improving as greater knowledge and experience are gained, and there is no doubt that bioremediation has great potential for dealing with certain types of site contamination. Unfortunately, the principles, techniques, advantages, and disadvantages of bioremediation are not widely known or understood, especially among those who will have to deal directly with bioremediation proposals, such as site owners and regulators. 2. 4 Microbes that are useful for bioremediation The biodegradation of petroleum in the marine environment is carried out largely by diverse bacterial populations, including various Pseudomonas species. The hydrocarbon-biodegrading populations are widely distributed in the world’s oceans; surveys of marine bacteria indicate that hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms are ubiquitously distributed in the marine environment. Generally, in pristine environments, the hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria comprise < 1% of the total bacterial population. These bacteria presumably utilize hydrocarbons that are naturally produced by plants, algae, and other living organisms. They also utilize other substrates, such as carbohydrates and proteins. When an nvironment is contaminated with petroleum, the proportion of hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms increases rapidly. In particular, in marine environments contaminated with hydrocarbons, there is an increase in the proportion of bacterial populations with plasmids containing genes for hydrocarbon utilization. The proportion of hydrocarbon-degrading bacterial populations in hydrocarbon-contaminated marine environments often exceed 10% of the tot al bacterial population 3. Review of Literature 3. 1 Biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons Biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons is a complex process that depends on the nature and on the amount of the hydrocarbons present. Petroleum hydrocarbons can be divided into four classes: the saturates, the aromatics, the asphaltenes (phenols, fatty acids, ketones, esters, and porphyrins), and the resins (pyridines, quinolines, carbazoles, sulfoxides, and amides) [R. R. Colwell, J. D. Walker, and J. J. Cooney, â€Å"Ecological aspects of microbial degradation of petroleum in the marine environment,]. Di? erent factors in? uencing hydrocarbon degradation have been reported by Cooney et al. One of the important factors that limit biodegradation of oil pollutants in the environment is their limited availability to microorganisms. Petroleum hydrocarbon compounds bind to soil components, and they are difficult to be removed or degraded [S. Barathi and N. Vasudevan], â€Å"Utilization of petroleum hydrocarbons by Pseudomonas ? uorescens isolated from a petroleum-contaminated soil]. Hydrocarbons di? er in their susceptibility to microbial attack. The susceptibility of hydrocarbons to microbial degradation can be generally ranked as follows: linear alkanes > branched alkanes > small aromatics > cyclic alkanes [J. J. Perry, â€Å"Microbial metabolism of cyclic alkanes,† in Petroleum Microbiology]. Some compounds, such as the high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), may not be degraded at all. 3. 2 Microbial degradation Microbial degradation is the major and ultimate natural mechanism by which one can cleanup the petroleum hydrocarbon pollutants from the environment [1-3] The recognition of biodegraded petroleum-derived aromatic hydrocarbons in marine sediments was reported by[ Jones et al]. They studied the extensive biodegradation o alkyl aromatics in marine sediments which occurred prior to detectable biodegradation of n-alkane pro? e of the crude oil and the microorganisms, namely, Arthrobacter, Burkholderia, Mycobacterium, Pseudomonas, Sphingomonas, and Rhodococcus were found to be involved for alkylaromatic degradation. Microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in a polluted tropical stream in Lagos, Nigeria was reported by Adebusoye et al. Nine bacterial s trains, namely, Pseudomonas ? uorescens, P. aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus sp. , Alcaligenes sp. , Acinetobacter lwo? ,Flavobacteriumsp. , Micrococcus roseus, and Corynebacterium sp. were isolated from the polluted stream which could degrade crude oil. Hydrocarbons in the environment are biodegraded primarily by bacteria, yeast, and fungi. The reported e? ciency of biodegradation ranged from 6% to 82% for soil fungi, 0. 13% to 50% for soil bacteria, and 0. 003% to 100% [6] for marine bacteria. Many scientists reported that mixed populations with overall broad enzymatic capacities are required to degrade complex mixtures of hydrocarbons such as crude oil in soil, fresh water, and marine environments [8]. Bacteria are the most active agents in petroleum degradation, and they work as primary degraders of spilled oil in environment [7]. Several bacteria are even known to feed exclusively on hydrocarbons [9]. Floodgate [36] listed 25 genera of hydrocarbon degrading bacteria and 25 genera of hydrocarbon degrading fungi which were isolated from marine environment. A similar compilation by Bartha and Bossert [6] included 22 genera of bacteria and 31 genera of fungi. In earlier days, the extent to which bacteria, yeast, and ? lamentous fungi participate in the biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons was the subject of limited study, but appeared to be a function of the ecosystem and local environmental conditions [7]. Crude petroleum oil from petroleum contaminated soil from North East India was reported by Das and Mukherjee . Acinetobacter sp. Was found to be capable of utilizing n-alkanes of chain length C10–C40 as a sole source of carbon [6]. Bacterial genera, namely, Gordonia, Brevibacterium, Aeromicrobium, Dietzia, Burkholderia, and Mycobacterium isolated from petroleum contaminated soil proved to be the potential organisms for hydrocarbon degradation [9]. The degradation of poly- aromatic hydrocarbons by Sphingomonas was reported by Daugulis and McCracken . Fungal genera, namely, Amorphoteca, Neosartorya, Talaromyces, and Graphium and yeast genera, namely, Candida, Yarrowia, and Pichia were isolated from petroleum contaminated soil and proved to be the potential organisms for hydrocarbon degradation [ Singh et al. ] also reported a group of terrestrial fungi, namely, Aspergillus, Cephalosporium, and Pencillium which were also found to be the potential degrader of crude oil hydrocarbons. The yeast species, namely, Candida lipolytica, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Geotrichum sp, and Trichosporon mucoides isolated from contaminated water were noted to degrade petroleum compounds [5]. Though algae and protozoa are the important members of the microbial community in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, reports are scanty regarding their involvement in hydrocarbon biodegradation. [Walker et al. ] isolated an alga, Prototheca zop? which was capable of utilizing crudeoil and a mixed hydrocarbon substrate and exhibited extensive degradation of n-alkanes and isoalkanes as well a aromatic hydrocarbons. Cerniglia et al. observed tha nine cyanobacteria, ? ve green algae, one red alga, one brown alga, and two diatoms could oxidize naphthalene. Protozoa by contrast, had not been shown to utilize hydrocarbons. 3. 3 Factors affecting Degradation A number of limiting factors have been recognized to a? ect the biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons, many of which have been discussed by Brusseau. The composition and inherent biodegradability of the petroleum hydrocarbon pollutant is the ? rst and foremost important consideration when the suitability of a remediation approach is to be assessed. Among physical factors, temperature plays an important role in biodegradation of hydrocarbons by directly a? ecting the chemistry of the pollutants as well as a? cting the physiology and diversity of the microbial ? ora. Atlas [4] found that at low temperatures, the viscosity of the oil increased, while the volatility of the toxic low molecular weight hydrocarbons were reduced, delaying the onset of biodegradation. Temperature also a? ects the solubility of hydrocarbons [8]. Although hydrocarbon biodegradation can occur over a wide range of temperatures, the rate of biodegradation generally decreases with the decreasing temperature. shows that highest degradation rates that generally occur in the range 30–40? C in soil environments, 20–30? Cin some freshwater environments and 15–20? C in marine environments . Venosa and Zhu [11] reported thatambient temperature of the environment a? ected both the properties of spilled oil and the activity of the microorganisms. Signi? cant biodegradation of hydrocarbons have been reported in psychrophilic environments in temperate regions. Nutrients are very important ingredients for successful biodegradation of hydrocarbon pollutants especially nitrogen, phosphorus, and in some cases iron [8]. Some of these nutrients could become limiting factor thus a? ecting the biodegradation processes. Atlas [11] reported that when a major oil spill occurred in marine and freshwater environments, the supply of carbon was signi? cantly increased and the availability of nitrogen and phosphorus generally became the limiting factor for oil degradation. In marine environments, it was found to be more pronounced due to low levels of nitrogen and phosphorous in seawater [10]. Freshwater wetlands are typically considered to be nutrient de? cient due to heavy demands of nutrients by the plants. Therefore, additions of nutrients were necessary to enhance the biodegradation of oil pollutant. On the other hand, excessive nutrient concentrations can also inhibit the biodegradation activity [11]. Several authors have reported the negative e? ects of high NPK levels on the biodegradation of hydrocarbons especially on aromatics [10]. The e? ectiveness of fertilizers for the crude oil bioremediation in subarctic intertidal sediments was studied by Pelletier et al. . Use of poultry manure as organic fertilizer in contaminated soil was also reported , and biodegradation was found to be enhanced in the presence of poultry manure alone. Maki et al. eported that photo-oxidation increased the biodegradability of petroleum hydrocarbon by increasing its bioavailability and thus enhancing microbial activities. 3. 4 Mechanism of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Degradation The most rapid and complete degradation of the majority of organic pollutants is brought about under aerobic conditions. Figure 2 shows the main principle of aerobic degradation of hydrocarbons [11]. The initial intracellular at tack of organic pollutants is an oxidative process and the activation as well as incorporation of oxygen is the enzymatic key reaction catalyzed by oxygenases and peroxidases. Peripheral degradation pathways convert organic pollutants step by step into intermediates of the central intermediary metabolism, for example, the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Biosynthesis of cell biomass occurs from the central precursor metabolites, for example, acetyl-CoA, succinate, pyruvate. Sugars required for various biosyntheses and growth are synthesized by gluconeogenesis. The degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons can be mediated by speci? c enzyme system. Figure 3 shows the initial attack on xenobiotics by oxygenases. Other mechanisms involved are (1) attachment of microbial cells to the substrates and (2) production of biosurfactants [12]. The uptake mechanism linked to the attachment of cell to oil droplet is still unknown but production of biosurfactants has been well studied. 4. Brief outline of the project work: 1. Procurement of oil Samples. 2. Procurement of Pseudomonas putida strain. 3. Sub-culturing the microbe in nutrient rich media for checking viability.. 4. Culturing microbes on a mineral salt media containing only crude oil as a carbon source. 5. Biodegradation studies. 6. Gravimetric analysis 5. Materials and Methods Soil Samples – Samples(500g) contaminated with oil used for hydrocarbons utilizing microorganisms, were collected from Nhava Sheva port in Mumbai(where a recent oil spill has took place). Crude Oil – Crude Oil is procured from an Oil production site of ONGC. Bacterial Strain – Pseudomonas Putida PS-I strain procured from NCL Pune. 5. 1 Preparation Of Nutrient Broth For preparation of nutrient agar, malt extract, yeast extract, Potassium dihydrogen phosphate and dextrose is required. Malt extract and yeast extract is generally used as a nutritious agent. Potassium dihydrogen phosphate i. . KH2PO4 is used as a buffering agent to maintain the pH. Dextrose is generally used as a carbon source because dextrose inhibits the growth of other micro-organisms. AUTOCLAVE is a device to sterilize equipment and supplies by subjecting them to high pressure steam at 121 ° C or more. Machines in this category largely operate by utilizing pressurized steam and superheated water. To sterilize culture media, rubber material, gowns, dressing, gloves etc. are used. It is particularly useful for materials which cannot withstand the higher temperature of hot air oven. CHEMICALS REQUIRED:- For 1000ml, Malt extract — 10 gm Beef Extract — 4 gm K2HPO4 — 1 gm Magnesium sulphate — 1 gm Sodium Chloride — 0. 5 gm pH — 7. 0 Agar — 15% PROCEDURE:- For preparation of 100ml of nutrient broth, around 100ml of double distilled water was taken in a conical flask. Malt extract, yeast extract, KH2PO4 and dextrose was weighed as per the composition mentioned above and added to the conical flask. The conical flasks are to be shaken so well so that all the chemicals should dissolve. pH was checked using pH meter and adjusted to 7. 0 using NaOH and HCl. The volume was made to 100ml by adding double distilled water. The above solution i. e. nutrient agar along with the Petri-plates was autoclaved at 15 psi and 15 minutes. Now the solution was allowed to cool down to ready to pour condition. PRECAUTIONS:- The autoclave should be done at 15 psi and 15 min. The pH should be maintained at 7. 0. 5. 2 Preparation of Nutrient Agar Slants from the Bacterial Strain For the preparation of Slants, Flame the inoculating loop to redness by holding it pointed down into the flame, starting near the handle and then moving the loop into the flame. This technique sterilizes the loop and, if wet with a culture, heats up the loop without spattering bacteria into the air and onto the surrounding area. Let the loop cool a minute. A hot loop will damage the bacteria cells. Using the fingers of the â€Å"loop hand† remove the cap from the stock culture tube and flame the tube mouth. Do not set the tube top down on the table. Insert the cooled sterilized loop into the culture tube being careful to not touch the sides of the tube. Touch the loop to the culture. You need not scrape a visible amount from the culture. Hold the tube as horizontal as possible to preclude particles from the air settling into the tube But do watch out for any condensate in the bottom of slant cultures. Don't let this fluid wash across the face of the culture. Remove the loop being careful again to not touch the tube sides. Flame the tube mouth and replace the cap. Remove the cap of the broth tube. Flame the top. Remember to hold the top in your fingers. Insert the loop into the Slant tube filled with agar and shake to remove the bacteria. Withdraw the loop, flame the tube mouth and replace the cap. Resterilize the inoculating loop and place it on the table. Never place a contaminated loop on the table. If there is any liquid in the bottom of the slant tube avoid sticking the loop into this condensate. 5. 3 Preparation of SubCultures of Bacterial Strain The Nutrient Broth Cultures are inoculated with the bacterial strain from the nutrient agar slant as detailed below. PROCEDURE Light your Bunsen burner. In one hand hold both the Nutrient Broth culture to be inoculated and the nutrient slant agar. Loosen the tube caps. In your other hand hold the inoculating loop. Flame the inoculating loop to redness by holding it pointed down into the flame, starting near the handle and then moving the loop into the flame. This technique sterilizes the loop and, if wet with a culture, heats up the loop without spattering bacteria into the air and onto the surrounding area. Let the loop cool a minute. A hot loop will damage the bacteria cells. Using the fingers of the â€Å"loop hand† remove the cap from the stock culture tube and flame the tube mouth. Do not set the tube top down on the table. Insert the cooled sterilized loop into the slant tube being careful to not touch the sides of the tube. Touch the loop to the culture. You need not scrape a visible amount from the culture. Hold the tube as horizontal as possible to preclude particles from the air settling into the tube But do watch out for any condensate in the bottom of slant cultures. Don't let this fluid wash across the face of the culture. Remove the loop being careful again to not touch the tube sides. Flame the tube mouth and replace the cap. Remove the cap of the broth tube. Flame the top. Remember to hold the top in your fingers. Insert the loop into the broth and shake to remove the bacteria. Gently shake the broth culture. This inoculated broth culture is incubated at room temperature for 72 hours and the bacteria is allowed to grow in the broth medium. 5. 4 Centrifugation of Crude Oil Centrifugation is a process that involves the use of the centrifugal force for the separation of mixtures with a centrifuge, used in industry and in laboratory settings. More-dense components of the mixture migrate away from the axis of the centrifuge, while less-dense components of the mixture migrate towards the axis. The precipitate (pellet) gathers on the bottom of the tube. The remaining solution is properly called the â€Å"supernate† or â€Å"supernatant liquid† The Crude Oil is Centrufuged at a speed of 5000 rpm for a period of ten minutes. The Contaminants in the oil are collected at the bottom of the tube in the form of pellets. These pellets can be removed by filtration using a filter paper. Now the concentrates oil which is free from impurities is collected in a flask and gently shaken. Spectophotometric Analysis Optical density, measured in a spectrophotometer, can be used as a measure of the concentration of bacteria in a suspension. As visible light passes through a cell suspension the light is scattered. Greater scatter indicates that more bacteria or other material is present. The amount of light scatter can be measured in a spectrophotometer. Typically, when working with a particular type of cell, you would determine the optical density at a particular wavelength that correlates with the different phases of bacterial growth. Generally we will want to use cells that are in their mid-log phase of growth. Typically the OD600 is measured. 5. 5 Subculturing Of Petri Plates with oil % of crude oil is mixed with 100 ml of Nutrient broth medium. The 1. 5g of agar is added to the medium and Nutrient Agar(with 1% crude oil) is prepared. Now take 6 Petri dishes. Open one of the dishes. Take the nutrient agar to be added and Swab the agar, barely pressing, side to side on the entire surface. The dish is closed immediately after swabbing to prevent contamination. The dish is sealed with tape around the edges to prevent co ntamination. Repeat the same procedure for the other dishes. Put the dishes in an incubator for 4 days to allow some growth. 5. 6 Biodegradation Studies Laboratory Biodegradation studies were carried out under optimized conditions for assessing the biodegradation potential of the pseudomonas putida PS-I Strain. After the desired interval of time, the petriplates were taken out and the bacterial activities were stopped by adding 1% N HCl. For the extraction of crude oil from these plates, 50ml of culture broth was mixed with 50 ml of acetone : petroleum ether (1:1) in a single separating funnel and shaken vigorously to get a single emulsified layer and acetone was added then to it and shaken gently to break the emulsification which resulted in three layers. Top layer was a mixture of Petroleum ether crude oil and acetone. Clumping cells aere formed in the middle layer and the bottom layer contains acetone, water and biosurfactant in soluble form. The lower two layers were separated out while the top layer containing petroleum ether mixed with crude oil and acetone is taken out in a fresh beaker. The extracted oil is passed through anhydrous sodium sulphate in order to remove the moisture. The petroleum ether and acetone were evaporated on a water bath leaving us with the dry oil clump. 5. 7 Gravimetric Analysis Gravimetric analysis describes a set of methods in analytical chemistry for the quantitative determination of an analyte based on the mass of a solid. the analyte must first be converted to a solid by precipitation with an appropriate reagent. The precipitate can then be collected by filtration, washed, dried to remove traces of moisture from the solution, and weighed. The amount of analyte in the original sample can then be calculated from the mass of the precipitate and its chemical composition. Gravimetric analysis is performed on the dry oil clump collected after the water bath. It is done by weighing the quantity of residual oil left after biodegradation in a tared vial. The mass of this crucible is subtracted from the initial mass of the 1% of oil that is added in the petridishes giving the amount of oil that is degraded due to the biological avtivity of the pseudomonas putida strain. 6. Results 6. 1 Growth Analysis of Pseudomonas Putida: The culture which was obtained in test tube slants was further sub cultured in conical flasks in a LB medium and the growth analysis was done to check the viability of the culture obtained. The growth kinetics plot was obtained by measuring the O. D. y using a visible spectrophotometer and recording the reading at regular intervals. The Graph was then plotted. 6. 2 Gravimetric Analysis: Biodegradation studies were conducted for 15 days and gravimetric analysis was done after every five days. The biodegradation effect was seen from the 5th day onwards. Laboratory biodegradation studies on crude oil by Pseudomonas putida No . Of Days| Initial Concn| Final Concn| Difference| Degradation (%)| 5 days| 1. 431  ± . 57| 1. 325  ± . 46| 0. 106  ± . 11| 7. 4| 10 days| 1. 453  ± . 71| 1. 198  ± . 38| 0. 255  ± . 34| 17. 54| 15 days| 1. 398  ± . 68| 0. 936  ± . 31| 0. 62  ± . 28| 33. 04 | 7. Discussion It can be seen that the degradation percentage of oil has increased from mere 7. 41 in the first 5 days to a good 33. 04 percentage towards the 15th day, from this it is clearly understood that pseudomonas putida is an ideal organism for bioremediation programmes. Moreover this rate of degradation has been obtained under normal conditions without any aid from surfactants or fertilizers. Hence there is scope for achieving much greater rates by using the above mentioned methods of fertilizing or adding surfactants. 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY (1). U. S. Enviromental Protection Agency (1990). Interim Report, Oil Spill Bioremediation Project. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Washington (2). T. Cairney. Contaminated Land, p. 4, Blackie, London (1993). (3). R. B. King, G. M. Long, J. K. Sheldon. Practical Environmental Bioremediation: The Field Guide, 2nd ed. , Lewis, Boca Raton, FL (1997). (4). Atlas, Ronald M. (1995). Petroleum Biodegradation and Oil Spill Bioremediation. Marine Pollution Bulletin 31, 178-182 (5) Hoff, Rebecca Z. (1993). Bioremediation: an overview of its development and use for oil spill cleanup. Marine Pollution Bulletin 29, 476-481. 6). Irwin, Patricia (1996). To clean up environmental spill, know your medium. Electrical World 37-40. (7). Swannell, Richard P. J. ; Lee, Kenneth; McDonagh, Madeleine (1996). Field Evaluations of Marine Oil Spill Bioremediation. Microbiological Reviews 60, 342-365 (8). Radwan, S. S. ; Sorkhoh, N. A. ; El-Nemr, I. M. ; El-Desouky, A. F. (1997). A feasibility study on seeding as a bio remediation practice for the oily Kuwaiti desert. Journal of Applied Microbiology 83, 353-358. (9). P. E. Flathman, D. Jerger, J. E. Exner. Bioremediation: Field Experience, Lewis, Boca Raton, FL (1993). 10). J. G. Mueller, C. E. Cerniglia, P. H. Pritchard. Bioremediation of Environments Contaminated by Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. In Bioremediation: Principles and Applications, pp. 125–194, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1996). (11). P. J. S. Colberg and L. Y. Young. Anaerobic Degradation of Nonhalogenated Homocyclic Aromatic Compounds Coupled with Nitrate, Iron, or Sulfate Reduction. In Microbial Transformation and Degradation of Toxic Organic Chemicals, pp. 307–330, Wiley-Liss, New York (1995). (12). A. S. Allard and A. H. Neilson. Oil Eating Microbes 39, 253–285 (1997).

Company Promotion Policies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Company Promotion Policies - Research Paper Example Fron this essay it is clear that if we look at the argument from the company’s perspective, they believe that Maria is a good employee; however, she is loud and aggressive at time in her contact with co-workers and supervisors. Moreover, she has had punctuality issues twice in the past and she gives family problems as the causes. She says that her family needed her help and support and it was her duty to do so. With regard to the accent, it was also cleared out that it was not the company was discriminating her accent, although it was a major consideration. However, it was pointed out that Maria speaks very rapidly and because of her accent, it becomes impossible to understand anything she said. The company says that communication is a very important part of that job description and hence, it cannot be overlooked.This study highlights that  we need to first understand discrimination before we can provide any ruling regarding the company’s promotion policy. We can defi ne discrimination as the bias in treatment that exists towards a certain race, color, sex, nationality. Another explanation of discrimination can be the improper treatment based on unjustified factors. Racial discrimination occurs when a member of one racial group is treated favorably as compared to the member of another racial group. Discrimination in the workplace occurs when there is an unjustified hiring, promotion, job assignment, compensation, or termination of the job... We can define discrimination as the bias in treatment that exists towards a certain race, color, sex, nationality. Another explanation of discrimination can be the improper treatment based on unjustified factors. Racial discrimination occurs when a member of one racial group is treated favorably as compared to the member of another racial group. Discrimination in the workplace occurs when there is an unjustified hiring, promotion, job assignment, compensation, or termination of the job (Blank, Dabady, & Citro, 2004). The law that is most widely used by employees against discrimination is the Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which states that, â€Å"to fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise to discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such individual's race, color, religion, sex, or national origin; or (2) to limit, segregate, or classify his employees or appli cants for employment in any way which would deprive or tend to deprive any individual of employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect his status as an employee, because of such individual's race, color, religion, sex, or national origin† (Garcez, n.d.). The case at hand is that the company promoted another employee based on his evaluation and his aggressiveness for the job and another employee who is in racial minority in the company believes that there has been discrimination based on sex, race, and language ability. There were three major reasons that contributed towards Maria’s retention at her current post: her aggressive and loud behavior with her co-workers and supervisors, issues with punctuality, and her accent, which

Computer Antivirus Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Computer Antivirus - Research Paper Example One of the most notable disadvantages of using a free antivirus is the lack of technical support from companies developing them. Whereas the majority of paid antivirus companies provide some online and phone support to their clients, freeware users normally must look after themselves. Some freeware providers such as Avast provide email support that is sometimes said to be ineffective and slow. Considering how close both categories of products are with regard to effectiveness and speed, the two most fundamental elements are customer support and software features. Given some exceptions, a paid product has better customer support systems and better-enhanced features as compared to free computer antivirus software. Comparing Top Paid Computer Antivirus vs. Top Free Computer Antivirus Avast Free Antivirus Software Avast, Free Antivirus combines highly rated all round freeware virus detection with a well-designed and speedy package. Avast has an easy installation process, minimum effect on the performance of the system as well as smooth interface design. Studies have shown that in customary signature-based virus tests, Avast scored highly by detecting approximately 95% of sampled malware, which according to analysts is neither bad nor good. The software additionally recorded a decent performance when tasked with the detection of real-world viruses by successfully detecting and, blocking completely about 75% of virus attacks and partially thwarting about 5% of virus attacks, a performance that was categorized as average.

Healthy People 2010--Obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Healthy People 2010--Obesity - Essay Example But it also is the cause of many other diseases like high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, stroke, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis, sleep apnea, respiratory problems, and some types of cancer. Because of its growing trend and dangers, it is extremely important to make it one of the most important health issues of the people of North Carolina. Obesity is the result of unhealthy food habits, lack of physical activity and lack of awareness of how it can be dangerous in the future. Out of the 27 nutrition objectives in the program Healthy People 2010, overweight and obesity are the two movements that are observed to be getting away from the targets. In particular, it has been noted that the proportion of adults and children who are obese has increased substantially, and this represents one of the biggest challenges for Healthy People 2010. This worrisome trend has led to set a goal to promote knowledge about healthy habits and reduce chronic disease associated with diet and weight. The study of the obesity issue from the past does not show a positive picture. It was noted that between 1976 and 1994, the number of cases of obesity alone have increased by more than 50 percent—from 14.5 percent of the adult population to 22.5 percent. Approximately 25 percent of U.S. adult females and 20 percent of U.S. adult males are obese ( Healthy People 2010). Overweight and obesity occurs when a person consumes more calories from food (energy) than he or she expends through physical activity. And looking at the fast paced mechanical life, where most of the work is done on computer and machines, there are no chances of people getting involved

'Alternative dispute resolution is at the heart of today's civil Essay

'Alternative dispute resolution is at the heart of today's civil justice system, and any unjustified failure to give proper - Essay Example Early 1990s had been witnessing delays in the conduct of litigation in courts exacerbated due to complex procedures and interlocutory battles entailing heavy costs to the parties and the state exchequer as well. As stated by the English Centre for Effective Dispute Resolution (CEDR), British commerce can achieve cost savings of over ? 1 billion by avoiding time spent by the management, spoilt relationships, lost productivity and legal fees.1 Mediation method already has helped save about ? 6.3 billion since 1990.2 In a classical case decided in 2007 involving a claim of just ? 6,000, parties are reported to have spent nearly ? 100,000 as litigation costs. 3 Perceptions about mediation are still mixed as revealed by a survey of the Ministry of Justice in 2007. For 38 % of the respondents, mediation had resulted in cost savings and for 29 %, costs had increased. Those who had settled cases through mediation informed of cost savings except for 7 % of them for whom costs had increased. F or those whose cases could not be settled through mediation, 45 % of them stated cost increases, 19 % cost savings and 28 % did not see any difference in costs.4 Sequel to Lord Woolf’s report, the U.K. Government made it a condition as far as possible to provide for ADR in all government contractual disputes arising out of procurement contracts. 5 As a result, ADR was resorted to in 336 cases out of which 241 were settled with a resultant cost savings of ? 120.7 million. 6 in Royal Bank of Scotland v Secretary of State for Defence, the successful defendant was refused costs as it had not opted for ADR in line with the above said ADR pledge by the Government.7 An audit report of 2007 stated that non-availing of mediation in family disputes entailed additional cost of ? 74 million through legal aid i.e average legal cost for a non-mediated case amounted to ? 1,682 as against ? 752 for a mediated case. 8 Warren K. Wrinkler Chief Justice of Ontario notes with caution that mediati on if not successful ends up as an additional layer in litigation costs. 9 Time efficiency is another factor apart from cost factor. According to a report of the CEDR, in England 75 % of their cases were settled instantly (same day). 10 Mediated family disputes cases are settled faster at 110 days than non-mediated cases which take 435 days to settle. 11 Regardless of cost effectiveness and time efficiency, flexibility available in mediation towards mutually consensual resolution is absent in court led litigation. The English Alder Hey case that involved more than 1000 claims is a classic example of successful mediation that resulted in apology and erection of permanent memorial for the children whose organs had been withheld by the hospital. ADR provides for not only procedural flexibility but also of flexibility of outcome.12 Mediation offers larger number of remedies that include apology, explanation, enduring relationships, and undertaking by one party an obligation without any legal compulsion. 13 In order to have an effective mediation system, the 2008 EU Directive applicable for cross-border disputes states that member states should have legislation that ensures mediation that guarantees a predictable legal framework, provides for flexibility in procedures and ensures autonomy of parties. Besides, the mediation should be conducted in an effective, impartial and competent manner.14 The EU directive adds that it can be applied to internal mediation of the

Napoleon's Rule Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Napoleon's Rule - Research Paper Example In essence, history lets us know how we came to be who we are and makes it possible for us to get a new perception of the world through different eyes. An awareness of there being these different perceptions allows students to carry out a critical analysis of their own society and culture and acknowledge and critique their own assumptions. The French Revolution and Napoleon are of major importance to history because they brought about the modern warfare as it came to be referred to in the nineteenth and twentieth century. They signify the transition from small, well-trained armies of the king to huge armies brought up by the universal male enlistment of nations. The war shifted from being king in opposition to the king to be the nation in opposition to the nation. France and all the satellite states it controlled had their resources availed to King Napoleon for use in waging war and this saw the groundwork for war being set in the nineteenth century for a full-on war in the twentieth century.2 The end of dominant monarchies in addition to churches and the emerging of democracy and patriotism are attributed to the French Revolution, it brought on popular repugnance to the privileges that benefited the clergy and aristocracies at a time when there was also an economic crisis. The French Revolution is seen as a turning po int event that changed Europe once and for all following in the pace of the American Revolution that had taken place a decade earlier.3 There had been seven years of war prior to the French Revolution and this had a profound effect on the French and they became restless as well as making the Western world volatile.  Ã‚  

My Philosophy of Education Leadership Personal Statement - 1

My Philosophy of Education Leadership - Personal Statement Example Proper administration and leadership of schools becomes important in this perspective. To be specific, according to the 21st century view point, there are certain values which a school administrator should follow in order to ensure that the education is being imparted properly and also to make sure that the knowledge lines are kept up to date. The leader of a school must have a clear picture about the educational system and he must be able to provide the environment for effective impartment of knowledge to the students. The proverb says, â€Å"Leader knows the way and leader shows the way.† In other words, the administrator must be able to properly guide the teachers so as to ensure the proper learning of the pupils, and, at the same time, he must be a source of positive vibrations for the students. He must be able to encourage them to learn their topics well and to teach them to pursue their own good careers. He must be dedicated to inculcate a good character in every pupil while making one a knowledge-rich person. There is an opinion that â€Å"the practice of educational leadership is a form of philosophy in action, that is an area of philosophical practice† (Codd, 1989, p.157). The administrator should have a clear picture about what is being taught and how things must be taught. Proper knowledge in these areas is essential to impart education in a proper way. You can guide someone only if you know the right way. Therefore, thorough knowledge about the curriculum becomes an essential requirement as far as a school administrator is concerned. He should also have subtle knowledge about modern teaching methodologies which inevitably incorporate technology in education. The administration and staff of an educational institution must work as a team in order to provide proper knowledge to the children. The administrator must be keen in enhancing the skills and subject knowledge of the teachers and keep them updated. Seminars and workshops should be arranged

A law presentation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A law presentation - Essay Example High Court can be traced back to 1980 in the Capital of Australia, Canberra, where most sittings held there. High court exercises original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction. The court interprets common law for the entire Australia. Its broad jurisdiction corresponds to Supreme Court of Canada. This makes it develop the common law consistently across all territories and states, which is the most significant role of the Court. The broad jurisdiction array allows the high court take the lead in Australian laws, and this contributes to uniformity and consistency in laws for different states.2 In this case, the plaintiff, TCL, manufactures air conditioners in China, and it entered into distributorship agreement with the Castel Co. that is registered in Australia. Dispute arose when Castel alleged of the agreement breach by TCL. As a result, Castel started arbitration in 2008 in pursuant of clause 12(1) of their agreement. The TCL opposed the claims and counter-claimed against Castel. When the two claims were presented in High Court, the arbitral tribunal came up with two awards.3 In December 2010, Castel was awarded $2.8M, and in January 2011, Castel was awarded $732,500, and it thereafter proceeded to federal court to enforce arbitral awards based on International Arbitration Act of 1974.2 On January 2012, justice Murphy held that Federal Court was jurisdicted to determine the application of Castel. This pursued the article 35 and 36 of the trade law of the United Nations Commission. The case proceeded to the final hearing, where Justice Murphy in April 2012 reserved the judgment. In July 2012, TCL filed a Show Cause Application. This sought for restraining the defendant from enforcing arbitral awards. In August 2012, Justice Gummow refereed the case in Full Court for the final hearing. Some of the considerations in the high count were the empowerment of an examiner to conduct

Video game research coms 472 Essay Example for Free

Video game research coms 472 Essay Video Game and Harassment: The medium that will be used is through video. The narrative format will resemble half way between a TED talk and a report. This will enable me to criticize the current state of online gaming and the constant harassment that occurs for women gamer. I am attempting to schedule some interviews from women gamer in order to receive feedback on the topic. At the same time, I’ve organized a couple of interviews of friends that easily fit in the higher percentage of ‘hardcore’ gamers (+ 10hrs of gaming a week), that were testers for different genre of gaming. I will also utilize documentary footage and videos from various youtube channels in regards to state real statistics about gaming, as well as my own research when applicable. Segment I: Video Game Industry at a glimpse (~2-3mins) The aim in this section is to present the importance of gaming as an industry. Doing so will further the importance of female harassment that occurs within the medium. The origin of video games is highly debated among gamers. Some consider the birth of video games in 1961, when MIT students created Spacewar! Others believe the birth of video games, through the creation of an actual video game company, placing Atari and Pong as the soul founder of video game culture, in 1972. Regardless who stemmed the culture, the success of theses few games snowballed into the arcade age, where many arcade games such as Pac-Man, Asteroids, and Space Invaders were seen in malls, movie theaters, and even grocery stores. Unfortunately, Atari made a fundamental mistake. Believing they had struck a gold mine by creating a new market, they quickly produced multiple games with no regards to the quality of the individual games. Though gamers created a viable business for companies, they also were picky about what they wanted to play. Most of theses games did not create a turnover and forced Atari to go Bankrupt. In 1985, Nintendo came out with the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) and moved the arcade to home entertainment system. It was bundled with Super Mario Bros and quickly became a huge success (Herz 20). During the 1980s, the video- game market became more and more popular, and the budget for the creation of video games increased as well, as more and more publishers and fans bought into the craze. It is at this time that the first console war occurred. Indeed, in 1989, Sega came out with the Sega Genesis, and Nintendo responded with the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. Next came the Sega Saturn, and the Sony PlayStation in 1994 and 1995. Then came the Nintendo 64, in 1996 selling more than 1. 5 million units in just 3 months. By the end of this era, Sony had become a leader in the video-game market, while Sega had fallen behind and was not doing very well. Today video games (across all platforms) are a 101 billion-dollar industry, almost more then film and music combined (= 88. 3 +15). The GTA V from the Rockstar franchise has surpassed 1 billion dollars in revenue, and will most likely keep growing with a new release on recent platforms (PS4, XBOX 1). The budget for the recent Activision shooter title Destiny was near the 500 Million dollar mark. Nearly half of all US homes own one game entertainment system, and 23 percent own more than three, according to Nielsen Entertainment. Furthermore, the average age of the gamer is now 30 years old. It is not simply a hobby, but a clear culture, with different levels of gamers within it. Segment II: Who are the gamers? Where do women stand/rank? (5 mins) This segment will enable me to explain the importance of the female demographic and where they stand as a group. This segment will introduce certain interviews or comments I will capture during the 5 a 7 at the Concordia TAG center. (All stats from entertainment software association) Today from the way video games are marketed, anyone could think that the majority of gamers are men. Recent studies have debunked this myth by presenting an impressive 40% to 47% of the gaming population are actually women. Typically, the common response to this statement is quickly pushed aside; stereotyping girls to only certain genre of gaming, including limited relaxation/board games and cell phone games. Within that mindset it could legitimize the reason why certain games are only catered to men. But once again certain instances prove otherwise; in 2009 the most popular xbox game for boys/men was Halo 3, also the favourite among women! Furthermore, the top 8 favourite games on PC that year were the same among men and women! Women do play theses games, in fact there is close to 84 Million female gamer in the US alone. The issue not being addressed here is the way theses women are being treated within that culture. Segment III: Dark side of the gaming culture (5mins) This segment will enable me tackle head on the biggest issue that occurs within the gaming culture. It is not the sexist representation of women, it is not the violence depicted through different games. The biggest issue, and it solely could explain the gender divide among hard-core gamers (ratio is 1 to 7), is the recurring harassment. In this segment I will include small interviews of close friends that have been testing games for a while, and will have a critical view of the industry based on their experience. Out of all female gamers 68% of them have revealed to experience harassment from playing video games. It is a constant experience that is easily catalogued through different blogs. This is why women hide whom they are playing online, just to be able to indulge in North America new favourite pass time. There are many instances of theses accidents reported, and even gaming celebrities (Aris Bakhtanians) have shrugged the issue, explaining that it is what the culture has been built on and will not change. (â€Å"Sexual harassment is part of this culture†). Another instant is reporter Anita Sarkeesian who was harassed about her comments on the portrayal of women in video game and fundraiser attempts to raise awarness. She was forced to shut down all social media accounts due to recurring threats and phone calls threatening her. (A game was created with the simple purpose to beat this woman up). What we have here is a fundamental problem across all levels of the video game culture.

The Guildford Four And Other Miscarriages Of Justice Law Essay

The Guildford Four And Other Miscarriages Of Justice Law Essay An overview in light of how the criminal justice system has changed in relation to miscarriages of justice. As defined in the book Miscarriages of Justice, a miscarriage means literally a failure to reach an intended destination or goal. A miscarriage of justice is therefore, mutatis mutandis, a failure to attain the desired end result of justice. The issue of miscarriages of justice has always been discussed, either as a legal, political or social issue. It has been such a vital issue that it provoked the appointment of the Royal Commission on Criminal Justice and many other changes in the English legal system, which shall be discussed in due course. It maintains being a legal issue due to the several rights at risk that are potentially affected by the operation of the criminal justice system, including  [2]  humane treatment (Art 3), liberty (Art 5), privacy (Art 8), fair trials (Art 6) and even the very right to existence (Art 2) in those jurisdictions which operate capital punishment. During the 1970s Great Britain had to face a wave of vicious attacks committed by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA). In response to the public outrage against the bombers, the Government introduced the Prevention of Terrorism Act 1974 (PTA) which gave new powers to the police to arrest on suspicion of terrorism, and to detain suspects for up to five days without charge.  [3]  It was clear that the police were under enormous pressure to capture the IRA bombers who had brought the war to Britain. Unfortunately, this led to numerous arrestings and convictions of innocent people. CASE STUDIES: The Guildford Four and the Maguire Seven were the first to be arrested and questioned under the new powers of PTA 1974. They were arrested for alleged involvement on behalf of the IRA, in the bombings of pubs in Guildford and Woolwich which killed five people and injure over a 100. On 22 October 1975, the Guildford Four Gerald Conlon, Paul Hill, Patrick Armstrong and Carole Richardson were convicted of murder, before Justice Donaldson and a jury of conspiracy. They were all given life sentences. An appeal against conviction failed in 1977, despite the fact that other IRA defendants awaiting trial  [4]  had claimed responsibility. However, in 1987 fresh evidence came to light following enquiries carried out by the Avon and Somerset police, which prompted a reference by the Secretary of State for the Home Department  [5]  to have the Guildford Four case reviewed. It was discovered that typescripts and notes of interviews had been tampered with; confessions were obtained under duress and detention sheets falsified. These matters brought into question the whole foundation of the prosecution case which had relied on the confessional evidence of the four defendants. After 15 years of imprisonment, the convictions were successfully appealed and their innocen ce was proved in October 1989. The outcome of the Guildford Four appeal immediately prompted the reconsideration of the case of Anne Maguire and the members of her family  [6]   the Maguire Seven- who were convicted in 1976, of being the source of the explosives used in the bombings.  [7]  Their sentences were quashed in 1992, although by then all had served their time, apart from Patrick Conlon who had already died in prison. The Court of Appeal reluctantly overturned the convictions because new evidence about the possibility of innocent contamination cast substantial doubt on the scientific evidence at trial that the defendants had been in contact with explosives.  [8]   The next blow to the publics faith in the criminal justice system was by the Birmingham Six case.  [9]  The Courts judgment  [10]  is an official testament to one of the most notorious miscarriages of justice in British legal history. In 1974, six men Hugh Callaghan, Gerard Hunter, William Power, Patrick Joseph Hill, Richard McLlkenny and John Walker- were convicted of bombings in two Birmingham pubs. The bombing caused more deaths than any other IRA incident in Britain.  [11]  The prosecution evidence rested upon three factors: confessions, which the accused claimed had been coerced and beaten out of them; forensic tests, which the accused claimed were essentially unreliable and had been performed unsatisfactorily; and highly circumstantial evidence, such as their links to known Republicans. New evidence was referred back to the Court of Appeal in 1988; even then the Court was unpersuaded. However, further revelations about the police fabrication of statements and new u ncertainties about the quality of the forensic tests ultimately resulted in their release in 1991. As mentioned earlier, that outcome provoked the establishment of the Royal Commission on Criminal Justice. In The Conscience of the Jury (1991), Lord Devlin wrote that together the miscarriages in the cases of the Guildford Four, the Maguire Seven and the Birmingham Six were the greatest disasters that have shaken British justice in my time. Another unfortunate case of miscarriage of justice which involved the IRA occurred in 1974, when Judith Ward was convicted for handling bombs which resulted in twelve deaths.  [12]  Her conviction was quashed by the Court of Appeal in 1992 because of the prosecutions failure to disclose material to the defence, which was supported at the time of the appeal by fresh psychiatric evidence and cast substantial doubt on the reliability of her confessions.  [13]   Another case arising from Irish terrorist activities concerned the Armagh Four Neil Latimer, Alfred Allen, Noel Bell and James Hegan-  [14]  who were members of the UDR, who were convicted of the murder in Armagh. After referral back to the Court of Appeal in 1992, Allen, Bell and Hegan were all freed because it was clear that the police had tampered with the evidence. It is evident that quite a few of miscarriages of justice have concerned Irish terrorist cases. The Irish terrorism trials stand out as having involved some of the most intense flaws in the English criminal justice system and as being the most vulnerable to error. There are probably two reasons for their prominence.  [15]  Firstly, special powers in the Prevention of Terrorism Act 1974 made abuses easier to commit, and more difficult to detect. Secondly, miscarriages are more likely because of the nature of these cases. In such prosecutions, the criminal justice system is under pressure by the desire to be seen to be taking effective action against terrorists.  [16]  This is probably why miscarriages seem so hard to remedy an acquittal becomes particularly costly to the State in terms of damage to its reputation. Various recognised cases of miscarriages of justice from the 1970s were not just confined to Irish terrorism. In 1976, Stefan Kiszko was convicted of murdering an eleven-year-old girl.  [17]  His conviction was quashed in 1992. Other infamous cases include those of the Tottenham Three  [18]  and the convictions in 1990 of the Cardiff Three,  [19]  for murder, which were overturned in December 1992 on referral to the Court of Appeal. Each of the abovementioned cases was a stain on the national stability of the United Kingdom, and a shocking reminder to the public that the English criminal justice system is imperfect. Such cases also raised many questions about police procedure and put doubts in many minds of the public as to the honesty of the police service. There were accusations that the police used beatings, intimidation, duress and threats against family and friends to derive illicit confessions from the accused. Numerous miscarriages of justice have come to light in the last few years, a few notorious ones having been mentioned above. But there are still many people in prison who proclaim their innocence to this day. Having overviewed a few cases of miscarriages of justice, the rest of this project will consider why such injustice occurs, what changes have been made to the law to prevent it, and whether these changes have rendered such tragedies impossible or whether there is a need for a more radical reform of the English criminal justice system. WHY DO CASES OF MISCARRIAGES OF JUSTICE OCCUR? As seen in previous cases, some of which have been discussed above, miscarriages of justice may result from a variety of causes. Problems begin arising from the very first meeting with the police to the very end of entanglement with the State, when machinery to reopen problematical judgments has been shown to be unfair and inappropriate.  [20]   There are a few common features which have been found to be present in most cases of miscarriages of justice, which led to the case being a miscarriage. However, it must be kept in mind that these features may not be the only reasons as to why miscarriage of justice occurs. The most obvious danger of a case being one of miscarriage of justice is the fabrication of evidence which was found to be an issue in the cases of the Birmingham Six,  [21]  Tottenham Three,  [22]  Armagh Four,  [23]  Darvell Brothers  [24]  and several West Midlands cases. Also, both the police and lay witnesses may prove to be an unreliable source when attempting to identify an offender as found to be the in cases of Luke Dougherty and Laslo Virag.  [25]  The evidential value of expert testimony has also been overestimated in a number of instances such as in the cases of the Maguire Seven,  [26]  Birmingham Six,  [27]  Judith Ward  [28]  and Stefan Kiszko  [29]   where it lat er emerged that the tests being used were unreliable, that the scientists conducting them were inefficient or both. Another common factor has been unreliable or false confessions as a result of being coerced by police pressure, duress, psychological or mental instability or a combination of all. Examples of these may be found in the cases of the Guildford Four,  [30]  Birmingham Six,  [31]  Judith Ward,  [32]  Tottenham Three  [33]  and Cardiff Three  [34]  cases. The non disclosure of significant evidence by the police or prosecution to the defence may be a further issue. The investigation of a case is by reliance on the police. Yet several cases, in particular the Guildford Four,  [35]  Maguire Seven,  [36]  Darvell Brothers  [37]  and the case of Judith Ward  [38]  illustrate that the police, forensic scientists and prosecution cannot be relied upon fairly to pass on evidence which might be helpful to the accused. Sometimes, as it has been alleged in the case of the Birmingham Six,  [39]  the conduct of the trial may produce miscarriages. For example judges may sometimes favour the prosecution evidence rather than acting as impartial umpires. Lastly but not the least, the presentation of defendants in a prejudicial manner- such as labeling a person as a terrorist- is also a problem in some scenarios.  [40]  As mentioned earlier, these are only a few of the common reasons as to why miscarriages of justice occur. Now that we have seen what is likely to cause miscarriages of justice and a few examples of it, this project shall now provide an overview of the changes that have been made in the criminal justice system in order to prevent such misfortunes from happening again. REFORMS: Successive governments have put into practice a number of important measures to prevent further miscarriages of justice. Most prominent, perhaps, is the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, and the Codes of Practice that accompany it. The creation of an independent, national prosecuting authority the Crown Prosecution Service   [41]  in 1986 has also been of fundamental significance to reducing the risk of miscarriages of justice. Another major reform was the establishment of the Royal Commission on Criminal Justice in 1993 and the Criminal Cases Review Commission that it recommended. The Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996 has also assisted in the prevention of miscarriages of justice. Although reforms have been made by the government to prevent miscarriages from happening, some people such as Paddy Hill of the Birmingham Six, are unconvinced that such legislation is enough. He told BBC News Online: Justice is something that is not on this governments curriculum. Therefore, apart from legislative changes and reforms in the criminal justice system, there has also been the formation of independent organisations, such as JUSTICE, Miscarriages of Justice Organisation (MOJO) and innocent projects by the name of Innocence Network UK (INUK) which have helped bring to the light many cases of miscarriages of justice. Investigative television programmes have also been of help to victims of miscarriages of justice in the past. How the abovementioned legislation and organisations work, and whether these methods have been effective or not to prevent cases of miscarriages of justice shall now be discussed in more detail. Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) 1984 Many miscarriages of justice cases arose before the PACE Act 1984 came into effect in 1986. This is because in the pre-PACE era, it was easy for the police to commit offences while investigating a case and get away with it, due to the absence of a statute such as PACE. The aim of the 1984 Act was to create a balance between the powers of the police and members of the public. PACE provides safeguards during police questioning, supported by strict Codes of Practice, made under s.60 and 66. It also gives detectives strict rules on the handling of evidence and on how long the police can question suspects for and insists that interviews be taped to ensure there was no mistreatment or any other form of intimidation. Safeguards such as these are in no doubt, assisting in the prevention of injustice. Crown Prosecution Service The separation of investigative and prosecution functions through the creation in 1986 of an independent, national prosecuting authority -the Crown Prosecution Service-  [42]  has also been of fundamental significance to reducing the risk of miscarriages of justice. The CPS was established under the Prosecution of Offences Act 1985, to prosecute criminal cases investigated by the police in England and Wales. Previously the police forces were responsible for the prosecution of such cases. However, in 1981, the Royal Commission recommended to the government that an independent prosecution authority should be introduced which would prevent police forces setting up independent prosecution departments so as to avoid having the same officers investigate and prosecute cases. Due to the separation of investigative and procedures it is less likely for miscarriages of justice to occur. Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act (CPI) 1996 During a criminal investigation, a large amount of evidence is gathered by the police including witness statements, forensic results, and confession statements etc. Not all of this evidence is shown at the time of the actual trial; much of is not even be admissible. However, some of the evidence gathered may undermine the prosecution case, and therefore be of interest to the defence. There have been a few cases such as the Guildford Four, Maguire Seven, Darvell Brothers and Judith Ward, where the prosecution deliberately failed to disclose evidence that was vital to the defence. In order to regulate the disclosure procedure, the Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act (CPI) 1996 was brought into effect. The CPI Act puts the burden on the police to disclose all evidence to the defence that they think might weaken their case. This process is overseen by the Crown Prosecution Service. Royal Commission on Criminal Justice Since 1907, when the Court of Criminal Appeal was created, the Home Secretary had a statutory power  [43]  to refer to the Court of Appeal, if he thinks fit, any case in which a person had been convicted on indictment and had exhausted all other methods of an appeal. The Royal Commission on Criminal Justice (RCCJ) was established the day the Birmingham Six convictions were quashed in 1991 by the then Home Secretary, to inspect the efficiency of the criminal justice system in England and Wales.  [44]  The Commission was set as continuation of Sir John Mays inquiry into the false convictions of the Guildford Four and Maguire Seven. In 1993 the Royal Commission reported and recommended to the Parliament that the Court of Appeal must be more ready to examine possible miscarriages of justice.   It also recommended the transfer over responsibility for the review of alleged miscarriages, from the Home Office to an independent non-departmental public body.  [45]  As a result of this recommendation, the Criminal Cases Review Commission was established. Criminal Cases Review Commission From the recommendation of the Royal Commission and through the enactment of the Criminal Appeal Act (CAA) 1995, the Criminal Cases Review Commission (CCRC), became fully operational on 31 March 1997.  [46]  The jurisdiction of the Commission extends to England, Wales, and Northern Ireland.  [47]  The CCRC is completely independent and impartial and does not represent the prosecution or the defence. The CCRCs statutory role and responsibilities are set out in the Criminal Appeal Act 1995 which involves reviewing suspected miscarriages of justice and referring a conviction, verdict or finding or sentence to an appellate court. The CCRC has wide-ranging investigative powers and can obtain and preserve documentation held by any public body. It can also appoint an Investigating Officer from another public body to carry out inquiries on its behalf. Applicants to the CCRC must focus their case on new evidence or argument that was not raised in the initial proceedings and as a result may cast doubt on the safety of an original decision. They can also challenge their sentence if they can show a new point of law or information relating to the sentence was not raised during the trial.  [48]  The CCRC refers a case to the appellate court if it considers there to be a real possibility that the conviction would not be upheld. There is no appeal against a decision of the CCRC, however a judicial review claim can be made to the high court to examine whether the CCRCs decision was unlawful.  [49]   The Commission has been the under considerable scrutiny for the way in which it deals with its applications. Criticisms of the Commission relate to the failure to interview more than a small proportion of applicants; to the insufficiency of communication with applicants and their representatives; and to alleged deficiencies of investigation, among other matters.  [50]   Although the CCRC is much better, than having no such body at all, to deal with issues of miscarriages of justice (as was the case before), it is still inadequate. JUSTICE JUSTICE is an independent legal human rights organisation which was founded in 1957. It works to improve the legal system and the quality of justice, in particular by promoting human rights, improving the legal system, criminal justice system and the access to justice. Ever since it was founded, JUSTICE has received requests for help by, and on behalf of, prisoners alleging miscarriages of justice in their cases. Some miscarriages of justice cases brought to light by JUTICE have provided investigations into the criminal justice system which resulted in reports urging reform. For example the Criminal Appeals (1964), Home Office Reviews of Criminal Convictions (1968), The Prosecution Process in England and Wales (1970), Evidence of Identity (1974) and Compensation for Wrongful Imprisonment (1982).  [51]  Several reforms have also taken place due to the influence of JUSTICE reports including reforms of police powers under the PACE Act 1984, and the forming of the CPS. Innocence projects Innocence projects  [52]  are a conjunction between university students, solicitors and barristers who investigate cases of alleged wrongful convictions, on a pro bono basis. The project seeks to uncover cases that are evident of the failings with the criminal justice system. Innocence Network UK (INUK) is the organisation for innocence projects based in UK universities, which was set up in 2004, to give help and hope to potentially innocent victims of wrongful conviction or imprisonment who have exhausted the appeals system and legal aid services. There are 23 member projects at universities across England, Wales and Scotland, with others being formed. Most of the cases they look into involve prisoners serving life or long-term sentences for serious offences, in particular murder, rape and GBH. According to the INUK, the CCRC is not doing a good job of referring cases of alleged or suspected miscarriage of justice back to the appeal courts. This is because; the public was under the impression that the CCRC referred cases in the interests of justice; however due to the way its rules have been set out, that was not the case. Some innocent victims of wrongful conviction were not referred back to the appeal court simply because they did not meet the required criteria, as happened in the recent case of Neil Hurley.  [53]   Television programmes The emergence of investigative television programmes such as Rough Justice  [54]  and Trial and Error  [55]  have previously helped to overturn a number of miscarriages of justice cases. These shows filmed enthusiastic journalists who pursued cases in detail in order to uncover such cases. Due to the impact of these shows, politicians and members of the public campaigned to pressurise the Home Secretary to refer cases back to the appeal courts. With the creation of the CCRC, however, such cases are no longer given as much importance and are no longer a major political issue. Such cases are now dealt with behind closed doors. If such media attention and support from politicians is once again provided, it will help a great deal in cutting down the number of cases of wrongful imprisonment. It may be concluded from this project, that miscarriage of justice indeed does exist in our criminal legal system. It is affecting the lives of many innocent people. Even when miscarriages of justice are corrected, they remain terrible personal tragedies which come back to haunt the innocent victims who have been through the whole ordeal. Gerry Conlon of the Guildford Four has had two breakdowns, an attempted suicide and a struggle with addiction after 15 years of imprisonment. Others have equally miserable stories to tell. Any amount of compensation may not be enough for those who have been wrongfully convicted and whose lives have been destroyed.  [56]   The ever-present dangers of mistakes in the criminal justice system are reflected in the often repeated sentiment that It is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer.  [57]  One must keep in mind that reforms have been made by the government and help has been provided by the members of the public to avoid or reduce such unjust incidents from recurring. Although the truth is bitter, it is of no use to anticipate that such miscarriages will altogether be eliminated in any way,  [58]  no matter how robust our criminal legal system is. This is because it is not just the English criminal justice system which is under this constant state of crisis, but this is the case in all other countries which operate legal systems. In order to prevent the numbers of cases of miscarriages of justice from increasing, the legal system must accept this reality and should take interest in identifying mechanisms which can reduce these cases. Further improvements to reforms or legislation must be considered as an ongoing struggle, to ensure that such misfortunes do not increase. Cases that are evident of the failings in the criminal justice system must be uncovered and lessons must be learnt from them in order to protect other such innocents from going through this injustice. Also, the victims of miscarriages of justice and members of the public must be reassured by the criminal legal system that that the possibility of such crisis occurring is less, rather than more, likely. One must not only hope that such injustice is reduced rather than increased, but also help campaign to take strict actions against such misfortunes. Who knows who the next innocent victim of miscarriage of justice might be? It could be you. Miscarriages of justice corrode respect for legal institutions. As a society we are finally learning that it is less damaging to admit mistakes than to pretend that they never happened. Nothing enhances justice more than the rigorous pursuit of error.  [59]  

adoption process Essay -- essays research papers

Adoption: The Process   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Adoption is metamorphosing into a radical new process that is both sweeping the nation and changing it. But this process is not an easy one, there are many steps to go through. Through research it is made a lot easier. Adoption is a also a highly visible example of a social institution that has benefits from and been reshaped by both the Internet and the exponential growth of alternative lifestyles, from single to transracial to gay. It is accelerating our transformation into a more multicultural society; even as it helps redefine out understanding of â€Å"family.† The process includes three main steps including a type of adoption, the techniques for location a baby for adoption, arranging a successful adoption, the steps at the hospital, and lastly the legal issues in adoption.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many types of adoption in California, more then any other in the country. The reasonable amount of time it takes to adopt a child is about a year. â€Å"Independent adoption is an alternative to agency adoption and is the means by approximately 85 percent of all newborns are adopted in California. Since that is the most popular that is the type that I am going to concentrate. The reason that it is the most popular is because of four factors. The first is because the independent agency is flexible, secondly it allows the birth mother to personally meet and select adoptive parents, thirdly it allows the adoptive parents to quickly locate the birth mother rather Smith 2 then waiting several years for the agency to do it for them, and lastly the child can be placed in the home of the adoptive parents immediately after birth instead of waiting in a foster home. By law the birth mother must personally place the child with the adoptive parents. That does not mean she has to do it physically it just means she must personally select them. The birth mother is permitted to release her child into the adoptive parents custody as soon as the hospital discharges the baby, usually 2-3 days old. Generally when the child is six-eight months old the adoptive parents can go to court to permanently finalize the process. A new birth certificate is prepared after the adoption is granted by the court. Independent adoption fees and costs can vary dramatically. Most adoption attorneys charge between 3,000 to 4,000. The adop... ...Release is a form that needs to be filled out by the birth mother to release the child directly to the birth parents. The birth mother can also chose to chose a room on or off the maternity ward. The reason that one chooses off the maternity ward is because it is away from the parents who are bringing their baby home. When the baby is born the hospital usually lets the adoptive parents see the baby, visiting hours usually don’t apply. The birth mother is still the legal parent and so only she can authorize any medical procedures regarding the child during the hospitalization. Before the baby is discharged the hospital will examine the baby and authorize the child’s release. Do not worry if the mother has chosen a name for the child different from the one you have chosen. Your Petition for Adoption will state how you wish to change the child’s name, and a new birth certificate will be made by the court. Smith 5 Work Cited Hicks, Randall. Nuenez, Linda. Adopting in California, How to find a Child. WordSlinger Press. 1992. Melina, Lois Ruskai. Roszia, Sharon Kaplan. The Open Adoption Experience. HarperPerennial. 1993. Pertman, Adam. Adoption Nation. Basic Books. 2000.

Child Development :: essays research papers

How To Prepare For The Birth Of A Child   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First of all Don’t be doing stuff that would make you at the risk for being pregnant, consider all alternatives, such as delivery, abortions, and adoption, and make a decision. If you decide to carry the child full term, continue on to the following step Make sure you have the means to pay for the options you choose. You will either need a very rich husband, or medical insurance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Vitamins, are very important take some every morning until the end of your pregnancy. If they make you puke, try taking them at a different time of the day. If they still make you sick, call your doctor. Your doctors will tell you to switch to a multi-vitamin from the store. If these changes do not work, you will need to change your diet to make sure you are receive all the vitamins you need.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prepare yourself emotionally. You need to change your personal habits and lifestyle based on the knowledge that your unborn child is defenseless, and needs to be placed as first priority. Smoking, drinking alcohol, taking drugs, consuming excessive amounts of caffine, and other such habits should be stopped, or your baby ends up as a crack addict. You need to realize that soon you will not have the body of a supermodel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Start a journals to your child. This increase the bond between a mother and child. This will help you realize more rapid that there is an actual human being growing inside you. Write about important events that are happening during your pregnancy. This may be useful later in the childs life. Tell your baby what it feels like when you lay in bed waiting to count it’s fingers and toes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Take care of your body. Eat health foods and drink a lot of fluids.Drinking milk is a wonderful source of calcium. If you are experiencing morning sickness, start eating small healthy meals frequently, instead of three large meals every day. An empty stomach adds to the nausea. Avoid greasy foods, and foods that may give you heartburn. Heartburn is very common with pregnancy. Elevate your legs higher than the level of your heart as much as you can throughout the day, balanced with time spent walking around. Exorcise regularly. Do not over exert yourself, but try stretching and strengthening your leg and mid-body muscles.

Threatening Forces

Threatening forces are every where we look in life. Almost anything could be considered a threat in today s society. The poem by James Joyce, I hear an Army Charging Upon the Land, contains evidence of a threatening force. The threatening force in this poem is punk rock kids at a punk rock show. Threatening forces are very apparent in this poem. A prime example of one is when he says Arrogant, in black armor. He is talking about kids in leather jackets. It is there way of proving they are punk and it looks threatening. Seeing people in leather jackets is scary, especially when society has trained us to think that black is a sign of. We have been trained to think that anything that stands out is scary and people in black leather jackets stick out like a sore thumb. Obviously, when James Joyce says in black armor, it is a threatening force of punk rock. Punk rock is a very firm theme of this poem that is supposed to be menacing. This is established when it says, Clanging, Clanging upon the heart as upon an anvil. This is saying how he feels that the chains that the kids wear are frightening. He feels that the sound of their chains dangling together is intimidating. When people who wear chains run the often make a loud noise and if you wear more than one, which most people do, it makes an extremely loud noise which can be demoralizing. Clearly, the sound of the chains clanging together is a threatening sound. The people who listen to punk rock music are a reoccurring theme of peril. The threatening force of punk rock is extravagant when James Joyce says; They come out of the sea and run shouting by the shore. This is talking about them after a concert and how they are rowdy. Them coming out of the sea is when they come out of the mosh pit, out of the sea of people. After this they are often rowdy with the little energy they have left over. They are talking loudly because their hearing was just blasted by the loud music. People who are in a really good mood and acting a bit rowdy are often seemed to be dangerous especially if they are yelling. Evidently, punks after a concert are considered a threatening force to society. The poem, I Hear an Army Charging Upon the Land, is about the threat that punk rock supposedly puts on our society. Society is chained to its belief that anything different is threatening. Even though most of these people are not the least bit scary. It is hard to believe that, when the leaders of society, like the police, are always blaming the problem of on these types of people. Is punk rock really a threatening force in society or just a way that we have been brain washed to fear change and difference?